Basic First Aid Kits: Contents and Usage
First aid kits are an essential tool in emergency preparedness, whether at home, in the workplace, or during travel. Their primary purpose is to provide immediate care and management of injuries or illnesses that do not require advanced medical attention. Knowing what a basic first aid kit should contain and how to use these contents effectively can be crucial in minimizing the severity of an injury or even saving lives.
A well-stocked first aid kit is ready for minor accidents and injuries. The contents of a basic kit typically include:
Understanding how to use these tools effectively is just as important as having them on hand:
Maintaining a well-equipped first aid kit within easy reach provides not just safety but also peace of mind that you are prepared to tackle most common emergencies swiftly and efficiently. Understanding how each element works together in your kit enhances your ability to provide effective initial care during emergencies-potentially saving limbs or even lives while waiting for professional assistance.
Every individual should consider training in basic first aid techniques through certified courses offered by many organizations worldwide; this education greatly complements the practical utility of first aid kits themselves ensuring more lives saved through informed intervention.
Firefighting equipment is vital for the safety and efficiency of firefighters as they confront fires in various environments. The range of tools and equipment used in firefighting is extensive, each designed with specific purposes to manage emergencies effectively. Understanding the types and functions of these tools not only highlights the technological advancements in firefighting but also underscores the bravery and strategic approach of firefighters in emergencies.
Firstly, one of the most recognizable pieces of firefighting equipment is the fire engine itself. Equipped with hoses, pumps, ladders, and water tanks, fire engines are essential mobile units that transport firefighters and their equipment to the scene of a fire. The engine's pump system enables firefighters to deliver high-pressure water streams over considerable distances, crucial for controlling and extinguishing fires.
Another fundamental piece of equipment is the firefighter's personal protective gear which includes helmets, fire-resistant clothing, gloves, boots, and breathing apparatus. This gear protects firefighters from heat, flames, smoke inhalation, and structural hazards as they navigate through dangerous environments.
In terms of firefighting tools specifically designed for combating fires, there are several key items including hoses equipped with nozzles that allow control over the direction and flow rate of water or foam. Nozzles can be adjusted to produce different patterns such as a wide spray or a concentrated jet. Foam systems are particularly effective against oil-based fires where water might otherwise spread flammable liquids further.
Moreover, axes and Halligan bars are critical hand tools used during firefighting operations. An axe can be used for breaking through barriers or chopping wood in rescue scenarios while a Halligan bar-a multipurpose prying tool-helps in tasks like forced entry through doors or windows.
Ladders also play an indispensable role by providing access to higher floors during multi-story building fires or rescues. They come in various forms such as collapsible ladders for space efficiency on trucks or aerial ladders mounted on large fire engines that can extend to reach higher elevations.
Thermal imaging cameras are advanced devices utilized by modern firefighting teams. These cameras help detect areas of heat through smoke-filled environments allowing firefighters to pinpoint hotspots behind walls or closed doors without direct visual line-of-sight. This technology significantly enhances firefighter safety by providing critical information about fire dynamics unseen to the naked eye.
Ventilation equipment including fans and blowers are used to clear smoke from buildings making it safer for occupants as well as enabling better visibility for ongoing operations within affected structures.
Lastly, rescue tools like hydraulic cutters often referred to as "Jaws of Life," are employed mainly in vehicle extrications following accidents. These tools allow first responders to cut through metal quickly thereby facilitating rapid access to injured individuals trapped inside vehicles.
The variety and complexity of firefighting equipment underline a fundamental aspect: efficiency combined with safety dictates their design and utility. Each piece serves its unique function yet complements others within broader operational strategies aimed at saving lives, properties, ensuring firefighter safety under challenging conditions.
Rescue tools are vital components of emergency response teams' equipment, particularly during vehicular accidents and structural collapses. Among the most essential of these tools are the Jaws of Life, cutters, and spreaders. Each tool has a specific function, designed to efficiently cut through or dismantle obstacles to access and rescue trapped individuals.
The Jaws of Life is perhaps the most well-known among these tools, often highlighted in dramatic rescues shown in media coverage. It's not a single tool but a set of hydraulic-powered devices that include spreaders, cutters, and rams. Named for their life-saving capabilities and their incredible power to 'bite' through metal as jaws do through food, these tools were originally developed in 1961 by George Hurst for auto racing emergencies but quickly became standard equipment for rescue operations worldwide.
Cutters are akin to gigantic scissors or shears. They are specifically designed with sharp blades strong enough to slice through metal-think of the robust materials used in car frames or steel bars. These hydraulic cutters are crucial when quick access is needed to reach victims encased in wreckage. The precision and strength of these tools allow first responders to rapidly clear away debris without compromising the safety of victims or rescue personnel.
Spreaders can be likened to reverse pliers; instead of gripping, they pry things apart using hydraulic force. This tool is used mainly to pry open crumpled vehicle doors or bent metal structures. When inserted into a narrow gap and activated, the spreader's arms move apart with significant force, creating an opening wide enough for rescuers to gain access inside an enclosed space or free someone trapped under debris.
Together, these powerful tools form a critical part of the arsenal available to firefighters and rescue teams faced with time-sensitive extrication tasks where every second counts towards saving lives. Their use isn't just about brute force; it also requires precision, technical knowledge, and teamwork. The operators must be highly trained not only in handling these tools but also in assessing complex situations quickly and deciding on an approach that minimizes risk while maximizing speed.
In conclusion, the Jaws of Life, cutters, and spreaders represent more than just equipment; they symbolize hope and safety amid chaos and destruction during emergencies. As technology advances, these tools continue evolving into even more efficient versions that further assist heroic men and women dedicated to saving lives under the most perilous conditions.
In times of emergencies, the role of effective communication cannot be overstated. It becomes the backbone for successful rescue operations, timely medical assistance, and overall disaster management. Among the myriad tools and equipment utilized during such critical times, communication devices like radios, mobile phones, and satellites stand out as fundamental components in orchestrating a coordinated response.
Radios have been a long-standing ally in emergency communication. Their ability to operate without relying on cellular networks makes them indispensable in scenarios where traditional systems fail or are unavailable. Emergency services widely use two-way radios to communicate crucial information swiftly and efficiently. These devices facilitate direct communication between rescuers, medical teams, and those affected by the emergency, ensuring that help is directed where it is most needed without delay.
Mobile phones are perhaps the most ubiquitous communication tools in modern society and their utility extends prominently into emergency scenarios. They allow individuals to contact emergency services immediately and maintain lines of communication with family and friends during crises. The advent of smartphones has further enhanced their value through features like GPS for location tracking, apps designed specifically for emergency alerts, and social media platforms which can serve as vital channels for sharing information quickly.
Satellites play a somewhat different yet equally vital role in emergencies. They support communications when terrestrial infrastructures are damaged or overwhelmed by demand. Satellite technology facilitates not only voice calls but also high-speed internet connections in remote or hard-to-reach areas affected by natural disasters or other catastrophic events. Moreover, satellite images can be crucial for mapping disaster-affected areas and planning rescue operations effectively.
The integration of radios, mobile phones, and satellites provides a robust framework for emergency communications. Each type of technology complements the others, creating a versatile toolkit that can adapt to various challenges presented during emergencies. As we continue to witness an increase in both natural and man-made disasters globally due to climate change and other factors, the significance of these devices only grows stronger.
Enhancing our capabilities with advanced technologies like AI-driven analytics for better prediction and management of disasters could further leverage these essential tools. However, it's crucial that all segments of society understand how to use these technologies effectively during crises.
Training programs on the proper use of communication devices during emergencies should therefore be made widely accessible alongside regular drills that simulate real-life scenarios. This would ensure individuals not only have access to these critical tools but also know how to utilize them efficiently when faced with an actual crisis.
In conclusion, radios, mobile phones, and satellites are more than just tools; they are lifelines that uphold safety measures during emergencies by ensuring information flows unimpeded across multiple channels. Their strategic application saves lives by optimizing response times and maximizing coordination among all parties involved in emergency responses.
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) such as helmets, gloves, and boots play a crucial role in enhancing safety during emergency situations. These tools are essential for individuals who find themselves in hazardous environments, whether they are first responders or civilians caught in unexpected scenarios.
Helmets are one of the most critical pieces of PPE. They provide vital protection for the head against impacts and falling objects, which are common hazards in emergencies such as natural disasters or industrial accidents. Helmets can also shield the wearer from electrical shocks and burns, making them indispensable for firefighters and electricians alike. The design of helmets includes features like shock absorption materials, adjustable straps for a secure fit, and sometimes even visors to protect the face.
Gloves are another essential component of PPE that protect the hands from a variety of dangerous conditions. In emergencies involving chemical spills or fires, gloves made from materials like nitrile or latex can prevent burns, abrasions, and exposure to toxic substances. For those involved in medical emergencies, gloves not only protect the wearer but also help maintain sterile conditions when treating patients. The selection of gloves must be appropriate to the specific risk involved; for instance, thicker gloves for handling sharp debris and insulated ones for electrical work.
Boots complete the trio of basic yet vital PPE by providing necessary protection for the feet and ankles. During floods or when walking through debris-filled environments, sturdy boots with slip-resistant soles and waterproof features can prevent injuries caused by sharp objects or slippery surfaces. Additionally, specialized boots with reinforced toes can protect against heavy falling objects at construction sites or during structural collapses.
The importance of these protective tools cannot be overstated-they collectively ensure a higher level of safety and effectiveness for individuals facing perilous tasks during emergencies. Moreover, wearing appropriate PPE like helmets, gloves, and boots is not just about personal safety; it's also about enhancing the ability to assist others without becoming a victim oneself.
In conclusion, while emergencies often bring unpredictable risks, having access to proper PPE including helmets, gloves, and boots can significantly mitigate these dangers. These items equip individuals not only to survive but to operate effectively under extreme conditions-ultimately saving lives and reducing overall harm during critical times.
In times of crisis, being prepared is not just advisable; it's essential. Survival gear plays a crucial role in emergency preparedness, ensuring that individuals have the necessary tools to stay safe and sustain themselves until help arrives or the situation stabilizes. Among the most vital pieces of survival equipment are emergency blankets, water filters, and flashlights—each serving a unique and critical function during emergencies.
Emergency blankets, often made from heat-reflective thin plastic sheeting, are more than just coverings. These blankets are designed to retain up to 90% of a user's body heat, combating hypothermia in cold conditions which can be life-threatening. The versatility of an emergency blanket also extends to its use as a signaling device due to its reflective surface, or even as a makeshift shelter against rain or wind. Lightweight and compact, these blankets can be easily packed in emergency kits and carried without burden.
Water filters come into play where access to clean drinking water is compromised—a common scenario in disasters like hurricanes, floods, or earthquakes. Contaminated water sources can lead to severe illnesses such as cholera or dysentery. Modern portable water filters can remove pathogens and contaminants ensuring safe hydration. Some advanced models can even convert dirty water into drinkable water without the use of chemicals or boiling, making them indispensable for both urban survivors caught in disaster aftermaths and adventurers in remote areas alike.
Lastly, flashlights are critical in power outages which often accompany major emergencies. Providing illumination not only facilitates navigation through dark environments but also serves as a means of signaling for help. Modern flashlights are durable, long-lasting, and come in various sizes—from compact models for personal emergency kits to larger, more robust designs that can light up larger areas.
Integrating these tools into your emergency preparedness plan enhances resilience against unexpected events. Regularly checking these items' functionality ensures they will be ready when needed most. While no one wishes for emergencies, having these tools can make all the difference in survival scenarios where every second counts.
An arborist, or (less commonly) arboriculturist, is a professional in the practice of arboriculture, which is the cultivation, management, and study of individual trees, shrubs, vines, and other perennial woody plants in dendrology and horticulture.[citation needed]
Arborists generally focus on the health and safety of individual plants and trees, rather than managing forests or harvesting wood (silviculture or forestry). An arborist's scope of work is therefore distinct from that of either a forester or a logger.[citation needed]
In order for arborists to work near power wires, either additional training is required or they need to be certified as a Qualified Line Clearance Arborist or Utility Arborist (there may be different terminology for various countries). There is a variety of minimum distances that must be kept from power wires depending on voltage, however the common distance for low voltage lines in urban settings is 10 feet (about 3 metres).[1]
Arborists who climb (as not all do) can use a variety of techniques to ascend into the tree. The least invasive, and most popular technique used is to ascend on rope. There are two common methods of climbing, Single Rope System (SRS) and Moving Rope System (MRS). When personal safety is an issue, or the tree is being removed, arborists may use 'spikes', (also known as 'gaffs' or 'spurs') attached to their chainsaw boots with straps to ascend and work. Spikes wound the tree, leaving small holes where each step has been.[citation needed]
An arborist's work may involve very large and complex trees, or ecological communities and their abiotic components in the context of the landscape ecosystem. These may require monitoring and treatment to ensure they are healthy, safe, and suitable to property owners or community standards. This work may include some or all of the following: planting; transplanting; pruning; structural support; preventing, or diagnosing and treating phytopathology or parasitism; preventing or interrupting grazing or predation; installing lightning protection; and removing vegetation deemed as hazardous, an invasive species, a disease vector, or a weed.[citation needed]
Arborists may also plan, consult, write reports and give legal testimony. While some aspects of this work are done on the ground or in an office, much of it is done by arborists who perform tree services and who climb the trees with ropes, harnesses and other equipment. Lifts and cranes may be used too. The work of all arborists is not the same. Some may just provide a consulting service; others may perform climbing, pruning and planting: whilst others may provide a combination of all of these services.[2]
Arborists gain qualifications to practice arboriculture in a variety of ways and some arborists are more qualified than others. Experience working safely and effectively in and around trees is essential. Arborists tend to specialize in one or more disciplines of arboriculture, such as diagnosis and treatment of pests, diseases and nutritional deficiencies in trees, climbing and pruning, cabling and lightning protection, or consultation and report writing. All these disciplines are related to one another and some arborists are very well experienced in all areas of tree work, however not all arborists have the training or experience to properly practice every discipline.[citation needed]
Arborists choose to pursue formal certification, which is available in some countries and varies somewhat by location. An arborist who holds certification in one or more disciplines may be expected to participate in rigorous continuing education requirements to ensure constant improvement of skills and techniques.[citation needed]
In Australia, arboricultural education and training are streamlined countrywide through a multi-disciplinary vocational education, training, and qualification authority called the Australian Qualifications Framework, which offers varying levels of professional qualification. Government institutions including Technical and Further Education TAFE offer Certificate III or a diploma in arboriculture as well as some universities.[3][4] There are also many private institutions covering similar educational framework in each state. Recognition of prior learning is also an option for practicing arborists with 10 or more years of experience with no prior formal training. It allows them to be assessed and fast track their certification.[citation needed]
In France, a qualified arborist must hold a Management of Ornamental Trees certificate, and a qualified arborist climber must hold a Pruning and Care of Trees certificate; both delivered by the French Ministry of Agriculture.[5][6]
In the UK, an arborist can gain qualifications up to and including a master's degree. College-based courses include further education qualifications, such as national certificate, national diploma, while higher education courses in arboriculture include foundation degree, bachelor's degree and master's degree.[citation needed]
In the US, a Certified Arborist (CA) is a professional who has over three years of documented and verified experience and has passed a rigorous written test from the International Society of Arboriculture. Other designations include Municipal Specialist, Utility Specialist and Board Certified Master Arborist (BCMA). The USA and Canada additionally have college-based training which, if passed, will give the certificate of Qualified Arborist. The Qualified Arborist can then be used to offset partial experience towards the Certified Arborist.
Tree Risk Assessment Qualified credential (TRAQ), designed by the International Society of Arboriculture, was launched in 2013. At that time people holding the TRACE credential were transferred over to the TRAQ credential.[citation needed]
In Canada, there are provincially governed apprenticeship programs that allow arborists' to work near power lines upon completion. These apprenticeship programs must meet the provincial reregulations (For example, in B.C. they must meet WorkSafeBC G19.30), and individuals must ensure they meet the requirements of the owner of the power system.[citation needed]
Trees in urban landscape settings are often subject to disturbances, whether human or natural, both above and below ground. They may require care to improve their chances of survival following damage from either biotic or abiotic causes. Arborists can provide appropriate solutions, such as pruning trees for health and good structure, for aesthetic reasons, and to permit people to walk under them (a technique often referred to as "crown raising"), or to keep them away from wires, fences and buildings (a technique referred to as "crown reduction").[7] Timing and methods of treatment depend on the species of tree and the purpose of the work. To determine the best practices, a thorough knowledge of local species and environments is essential.[citation needed]
There can be a vast difference between the techniques and practices of professional arborists and those of inadequately trained tree workers. Some commonly offered "services" are considered unacceptable by modern arboricultural standards and may seriously damage, disfigure, weaken, or even kill trees. One such example is tree topping, lopping, or "hat-racking", where entire tops of trees or main stems are removed, generally by cross-cutting the main stem(s) or leaders, leaving large unsightly stubs. Trees that manage to survive such treatment are left prone to a spectrum of detrimental effects, including vigorous but weakly attached regrowth, pest susceptibility, pathogen intrusion, and internal decay.[8]
Pruning should only be done with a specific purpose in mind. Every cut is a wound, and every leaf lost is removal of photosynthetic potential. Proper pruning can be helpful in many ways, but should always be done with the minimum amount of live tissue removed.[9]
In recent years, research has proven that wound dressings such as paint, tar or other coverings are unnecessary and may harm trees. The coverings may encourage growth of decay-causing fungi. Proper pruning, by cutting through branches at the right location, can do more to limit decay than wound dressing [10]
Chemicals can be applied to trees for insect or disease control through soil application, stem injections or spraying. Compacted or disturbed soils can be improved in various ways.[citation needed]
Arborists can also assess trees to determine the health, structure, safety or feasibility within a landscape and in proximity to humans. Modern arboriculture has progressed in technology and sophistication from practices of the past. Many current practices are based on knowledge gained through recent research, including that of Alex Shigo, considered one "father" of modern arboriculture.[11]
Depending on the jurisdiction, there may be a number of legal issues surrounding the practices of arborists, including boundary issues, public safety issues, "heritage" trees of community value, and "neighbour" issues such as ownership, obstruction of views, impacts of roots crossing boundaries, nuisance problems, disease or insect quarantines, and safety of nearby trees or plants that may be affected.[citation needed]
Arborists are frequently consulted to establish the factual basis of disputes involving trees, or by private property owners seeking to avoid legal liability through the duty of care.[12] Arborists may be asked to assess the value of a tree[13] in the process of an insurance claim for trees damaged or destroyed,[14] or to recover damages resulting from tree theft or vandalism.[15] In cities with tree preservation orders an arborist's evaluation of tree hazard may be required before a property owner may remove a tree, or to assure the protection of trees in development plans and during construction operations. Carrying out work on protected trees and hedges is illegal without express permission from local authorities,[16] and can result in legal action including fines.[17] Homeowners who have entered into contracts with a Homeowner's association (see also Restrictive covenants) may need an arborists' professional opinion of a hazardous condition prior to removing a tree, or may be obligated to assure the protection of the views of neighboring properties prior to planting a tree or in the course of pruning.[18] Arborists may be consulted in forensic investigations where the evidence of a crime can be determined within the growth rings of a tree, for example. Arborists may be engaged by one member of a dispute in order to identify factual information about trees useful to that member of the dispute, or they can be engaged as an expert witness providing unbiased scientific knowledge in a court case. Homeowners associations seeking to write restrictive covenants, or legislative bodies seeking to write laws involving trees, may seek the counsel of arborists in order to avoid future difficulties.[19]
Before undertaking works in the UK, arborists have a legal responsibility to survey trees for wildlife, especially bats, which are given particular legal protection. In addition, any tree in the UK can be covered by a tree preservation order and it is illegal to conduct any work on a tree, including deadwooding or pruning, before permission has been sought from the local council.[citation needed]
The protagonist in Italo Calvino's novel The Baron in the Trees lives life on the ground as a boy and spends the rest of his life swinging from tree to tree in the Italian countryside. As a young man he helps the local fruit farmers by pruning their trees.[citation needed]
Some noteworthy arborists include:
Lithia Springs may refer to:
Arboriculture (/ˈɑËÂrbÉ™rɪˌkÊŒltʃər, É‘ËÂrˈbÉâ€Ã‹Âr-/)[1] is the cultivation, management, and study of individual trees, shrubs, vines, and other perennial woody plants. The science of arboriculture studies how these plants grow and respond to cultural practices and to their environment. The practice of arboriculture includes cultural techniques such as selection, planting, training, fertilization, pest and pathogen control, pruning, shaping, and removal.
A person who practices or studies arboriculture can be termed an arborist or an arboriculturist. A tree surgeon is more typically someone who is trained in the physical maintenance and manipulation of trees and therefore more a part of the arboriculture process rather than an arborist. Risk management, legal issues, and aesthetic considerations have come to play prominent roles in the practice of arboriculture. Businesses often need to hire arboriculturists to complete "tree hazard surveys" and generally manage the trees on-site to fulfill occupational safety and health obligations.[citation needed]
Arboriculture is primarily focused on individual woody plants and trees maintained for permanent landscape and amenity purposes, usually in gardens, parks or other populated settings, by arborists, for the enjoyment, protection, and benefit of people.[citation needed]
Arboricultural matters are also considered to be within the practice of urban forestry yet the clear and separate divisions are not distinct or discreet.[citation needed]
Tree benefits are the economic, ecological, social and aesthetic use, function purpose, or services of a tree (or group of trees), in its situational context in the landscape.
A tree defect is any feature, condition, or deformity of a tree that indicates weak structure or instability that could contribute to tree failure.
Common types of tree defects:
Codominant stems: two or more stems that grow upward from a single point of origin and compete with one another.
Included bark: bark is incorporated in the joint between two limbs, creating a weak attachment
Dead, diseased, or broken branches:
Cracks
Cavity and hollows: sunken or open areas wherein a tree has suffered injury followed by decay. Further indications include: fungal fruiting structures, insect or animal nests.
Lean: a lean of more than 40% from vertical presents a risk of tree failure
Taper: change in diameter over the length of trunks branches and roots
Epicormic branches (water sprouts in canopy or suckers from root system): often grow in response to major damage or excessive pruning
Roots:
Proper tree installation ensures the long-term viability of the tree and reduces the risk of tree failure.
Quality nursery stock must be used. There must be no visible damage or sign of disease. Ideally the tree should have good crown structure. A healthy root ball should not have circling roots and new fibrous roots should be present at the soil perimeter. Girdling or circling roots should be pruned out. Excess soil above the root flare should be removed immediately, since it present a risk of disease ingress into the trunk.
Appropriate time of year to plant: generally fall or early spring in temperate regions of the northern hemisphere.
Planting hole: the planting hole should be 3 times the width of the root ball. The hole should be dug deep enough that when the root ball is placed on the substrate, the root flare is 3–5cm above the surrounding soil grade. If soil is left against the trunk, it may lead to bark, cambium and wood decay. Angular sides to the planting hole will encourage roots to grow radially from the trunk, rather than circling the planting hole. In urban settings, soil preparation may include the use of:
Tree wells: a zone of mulch can be installed around the tree trunk to: limit root zone competition (from turf or weeds), reduce soil compaction, improve soil structure, conserve moisture, and keep lawn equipment at a distance. No more than 5–10cm of mulch should be used to avoid suffocating the roots. Mulch must be kept approximately 20cm from the trunk to avoid burying the root flare. With city trees additional tree well preparation includes:
Tree grates/grill and frames: limit compaction on root zone and mechanical damage to roots and trunk
Root barriers: forces roots to grow down under surface asphalt/concrete/pavers to limit infrastructure damage from roots
Staking: newly planted, immature trees should be staked for one growing season to allow for the root system to establish. Staking for longer than one season should only be considered in situations where the root system has failed to establish sufficient structural support. Guy wires can be used for larger, newly planted trees. Care must be used to avoid stem girdling from the support system ties.
Irrigation: irrigation infrastructure may be installed to ensure a regular water supply throughout the lifetime of the tree. Wicking beds are an underground reservoir from which water is wicked into soil. Watering bags may be temporarily installed around tree stakes to provide water until the root system becomes established. Permeable paving allows for water infiltration in paved urban settings, such as parks and walkways.
Within the United Kingdom trees are considered as a material consideration within the town planning system and may be conserved as amenity landscape[2] features.
The role of the Arborist or Local Government Arboricultural Officer is likely to have a great effect on such matters. Identification of trees of high quality which may have extensive longevity is a key element in the preservation of trees.
Urban and rural trees may benefit from statutory protection under the Town and Country Planning[3] system. Such protection can result in the conservation and improvement of the urban forest as well as rural settlements.
Historically the profession divides into the operational and professional areas. These might be further subdivided into the private and public sectors. The profession is broadly considered as having one trade body known as the Arboricultural Association, although the Institute of Chartered Foresters offers a route for professional recognition and chartered arboriculturist status.
The qualifications associated with the industry range from vocational to Doctorate. Arboriculture is a comparatively young industry.
Forestry is the science and craft of creating, managing, planting, using, conserving and repairing forests and woodlands for associated resources for human and environmental benefits.[1] Forestry is practiced in plantations and natural stands.[2] The science of forestry has elements that belong to the biological, physical, social, political and managerial sciences.[3] Forest management plays an essential role in the creation and modification of habitats and affects ecosystem services provisioning.[4]
Modern forestry generally embraces a broad range of concerns, in what is known as multiple-use management, including: the provision of timber, fuel wood, wildlife habitat, natural water quality management, recreation, landscape and community protection, employment, aesthetically appealing landscapes, biodiversity management, watershed management, erosion control, and preserving forests as "sinks" for atmospheric carbon dioxide.
Forest ecosystems have come to be seen as the most important component of the biosphere,[5] and forestry has emerged as a vital applied science, craft, and technology. A practitioner of forestry is known as a forester. Another common term is silviculturist. Silviculture is narrower than forestry, being concerned only with forest plants, but is often used synonymously with forestry.
All people depend upon forests and their biodiversity, some more than others.[6] Forestry is an important economic segment in various industrial countries,[7] as forests provide more than 86 million green jobs and support the livelihoods of many more people.[6] For example, in Germany, forests cover nearly a third of the land area,[8] wood is the most important renewable resource, and forestry supports more than a million jobs and about €181 billion of value to the German economy each year.[9]
Worldwide, an estimated 880 million people spend part of their time collecting fuelwood or producing charcoal, many of them women.[6][quantify] Human populations tend to be low in areas of low-income countries with high forest cover and high forest biodiversity, but poverty rates in these areas tend to be high.[6] Some 252 million people living in forests and savannahs have incomes of less than US$1.25 per day.[6]
Over the past centuries, forestry was regarded as a separate science. With the rise of ecology and environmental science, there has been a reordering in the applied sciences. In line with this view, forestry is a primary land-use science comparable with agriculture.[10] Under these headings, the fundamentals behind the management of natural forests comes by way of natural ecology. Forests or tree plantations, those whose primary purpose is the extraction of forest products, are planned and managed to utilize a mix of ecological and agroecological principles.[11] In many regions of the world there is considerable conflict between forest practices and other societal priorities such as water quality, watershed preservation, sustainable fishing, conservation, and species preservation.[12]
Silvology (Latin: silva or sylva, "forests and woods"; Ancient Greek: -λογία, -logia, "science of" or "study of") is the biological science of studying forests and woodlands, incorporating the understanding of natural forest ecosystems, and the effects and development of silvicultural practices. The term complements silviculture, which deals with the art and practice of forest management.[13]
Silvology is seen as a single science for forestry and was first used by Professor Roelof A.A. Oldeman at Wageningen University.[14] It integrates the study of forests and forest ecology, dealing with single tree autecology and natural forest ecology.
Dendrology (Ancient Greek: δÃŽÂνδρον, dendron, "tree"; and Ancient Greek: -λογία, -logia, science of or study of) or xylology (Ancient Greek: ξÃÂλον, ksulon, "wood") is the science and study of woody plants (trees, shrubs, and lianas), specifically, their taxonomic classifications.[15] There is no sharp boundary between plant taxonomy and dendrology; woody plants not only belong to many different plant families, but these families may be made up of both woody and non-woody members. Some families include only a few woody species. Dendrology, as a discipline of industrial forestry, tends to focus on identification of economically useful woody plants and their taxonomic interrelationships. As an academic course of study, dendrology will include all woody plants, native and non-native, that occur in a region. A related discipline is the study of sylvics, which focuses on the autecology of genera and species.
The provenance of forest reproductive material used to plant forests has a great influence on how the trees develop, hence why it is important to use forest reproductive material of good quality and of high genetic diversity.[16] More generally, all forest management practices, including in natural regeneration systems, may impact the genetic diversity of trees.
The term genetic diversity describes the differences in DNA sequence between individuals as distinct from variation caused by environmental influences. The unique genetic composition of an individual (its genotype) will determine its performance (its phenotype) at a particular site.[17]
Genetic diversity is needed to maintain the vitality of forests and to provide resilience to pests and diseases. Genetic diversity also ensures that forest trees can survive, adapt and evolve under changing environmental conditions. Furthermore, genetic diversity is the foundation of biological diversity at species and ecosystem levels. Forest genetic resources are therefore important to consider in forest management.[16]
Genetic diversity in forests is threatened by forest fires, pests and diseases, habitat fragmentation, poor silvicultural practices and inappropriate use of forest reproductive material.
About 98 million hectares of forest were affected by fire in 2015; this was mainly in the tropical domain, where fire burned about 4 percent of the total forest area in that year. More than two-thirds of the total forest area affected was in Africa and South America. Insects, diseases and severe weather events damaged about 40 million hectares of forests in 2015, mainly in the temperate and boreal domains.[18]
Furthermore, the marginal populations of many tree species are facing new threats due to the effects of climate change.[16]
Most countries in Europe have recommendations or guidelines for selecting species and provenances that can be used in a given site or zone.[17]
Forest management is a branch of forestry concerned with overall administrative, legal, economic, and social aspects, as well as scientific and technical aspects, such as silviculture, forest protection, and forest regulation. This includes management for timber, aesthetics, recreation, urban values, water, wildlife, inland and nearshore fisheries, wood products, plant genetic resources, and other forest resource values.[19] Management objectives can be for conservation, utilisation, or a mixture of the two. Techniques include timber extraction, planting and replanting of different species, building and maintenance of roads and pathways through forests, and preventing fire.
The first dedicated forestry school was established by Georg Ludwig Hartig at Hungen in the Wetterau, Hesse, in 1787, though forestry had been taught earlier in central Europe, including at the University of Giessen, in Hesse-Darmstadt.
In Spain, the first forestry school was the Forest Engineering School of Madrid (Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros de Montes), founded in 1844.
The first in North America, the Biltmore Forest School was established near Asheville, North Carolina, by Carl A. Schenck on September 1, 1898, on the grounds of George W. Vanderbilt's Biltmore Estate. Another early school was the New York State College of Forestry, established at Cornell University just a few weeks later, in September 1898.
Early 19th century North American foresters went to Germany to study forestry. Some early German foresters also emigrated to North America.
In South America the first forestry school was established in Brazil, in Viçosa, Minas Gerais, in 1962, and moved the next year to become a faculty at the Federal University of Paraná, in Curitiba.[34]
Today, forestry education typically includes training in general biology, ecology, botany, genetics, soil science, climatology, hydrology, economics and forest management. Education in the basics of sociology and political science is often considered an advantage. Professional skills in conflict resolution and communication are also important in training programs.[35]
In India, forestry education is imparted in the agricultural universities and in Forest Research Institutes (deemed universities). Four year degree programmes are conducted in these universities at the undergraduate level. Masters and Doctorate degrees are also available in these universities.
In the United States, postsecondary forestry education leading to a Bachelor's degree or Master's degree is accredited by the Society of American Foresters.[36]
In Canada the Canadian Institute of Forestry awards silver rings to graduates from accredited university BSc programs, as well as college and technical programs.[37]
In many European countries, training in forestry is made in accordance with requirements of the Bologna Process and the European Higher Education Area.
The International Union of Forest Research Organizations is the only international organization that coordinates forest science efforts worldwide.[38]
In order to keep up with changing demands and environmental factors, forestry education does not stop at graduation. Increasingly, forestry professionals engage in regular training to maintain and improve on their management practices. An increasingly popular tool are marteloscopes; one hectare large, rectangular forest sites where all trees are numbered, mapped and recorded.
These sites can be used to do virtual thinnings and test one's wood quality and volume estimations as well as tree microhabitats. This system is mainly suitable to regions with small-scale multi-functional forest management systems
Forestry literature is the books, journals and other publications about forestry.
The first major works about forestry in the English language included Roger Taverner's Booke of Survey (1565), John Manwood's A Brefe Collection of the Lawes of the Forrest (1592) and John Evelyn's Sylva (1662).[39]
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The Society of American Foresters grants accreditation only to specific educational curricula that lead to a first professional degree in forestry at the bachelor's or master's level.
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 Key findings​, FAO, FAO.
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO (license statement/permission). Text taken from The State of the World's Forests 2020. Forests, biodiversity and people – In brief​, FAO & UNEP, FAO & UNEP.
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA IGO 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023​, FAO, FAO.
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