Latex mattress layers are celebrated for their unique blend of comfort and support, a balance largely dictated by the core layer beneath them. This core isnt just a base; its a foundational element that significantly impacts how the latex layers above perform, influencing everything from pressure relief and motion isolation to overall durability and longevity. Variations in core construction can dramatically alter the feel and functionality of the entire mattress.
One common core variation is the Dunlop latex core. Dense and supportive, Dunlop offers a firm foundation, making it ideal for those who prefer a more traditional, less sinking feel. This firmness also translates into excellent durability and edge support. However, this density can sometimes compromise pressure relief, particularly for side sleepers. Pairing a Dunlop core with softer, comfort layers of Talalay latex can mitigate this, creating a balanced sleep surface.
Talalay latex cores, on the other hand, are known for their open-cell structure and buoyant feel. They offer exceptional pressure relief and contouring, making them a popular choice for those with joint pain or pressure sensitivities. While Talalay cores offer a luxurious, cloud-like sensation, they can sometimes lack the deep support provided by Dunlop, particularly for heavier individuals or stomach sleepers. Reinforcing a Talalay core with firmer support layers, or opting for a higher density Talalay, can address this potential drawback.
Beyond latex, polyfoam cores are also frequently used, often as a more budget-friendly option. These can range in density and firmness, offering varying levels of support and pressure relief. However, polyfoam generally lacks the breathability and durability of latex, which can lead to heat retention and premature sagging. While a polyfoam core paired with latex comfort layers can provide a comfortable initial feel, its important to consider the long-term performance implications.
Finally, innerspring cores provide a traditional bounce and strong support. While they can be paired with latex comfort layers, the combination can sometimes feel disjointed. The inherent differences in responsiveness and pressure relief between springs and latex can create a less harmonious sleep surface.
Ultimately, the core layer is the unsung hero of a latex mattress. Understanding the nuances of each core variation, and how it interacts with the latex layers above, is crucial for selecting a mattress that truly caters to your individual sleep needs and preferences. The right core can enhance the inherent benefits of latex, maximizing its potential for delivering a comfortable and supportive sleep experience.
When it comes to latex mattress layers, two names consistently pop up: Dunlop and Talalay. While both processes result in a comfortable and durable sleep surface, understanding their distinct manufacturing methods helps explain the subtle yet important differences in their final properties. This, in turn, can guide your decision towards the perfect latex mattress for your needs.
Dunlop, the older of the two methods, is a simpler, more straightforward process. Latex mixture is poured into a mold, vulcanized (heated to solidify), and then washed and dried. Because gravity plays a role in this process, the latex tends to be denser at the bottom than the top, creating a firmer feel. This inherent density gradient can be beneficial for those seeking more support. Dunlop latex is often described as having a slightly more "springy" feel, reminiscent of traditional latex.
Talalay latex, a refinement of the Dunlop process, introduces a few extra steps that result in a different feel and structure. After the mold is filled, air is vacuumed out, creating an even distribution of the latex mixture before its flash-frozen and then vulcanized. This freezing process prevents settling and results in a more uniform, consistent feel throughout the layer. Talalay latex is generally considered softer and more conforming than Dunlop, often described as having a lighter, airier feel. The additional steps involved in the Talalay process often translate to a higher price tag.
The density of the latex, regardless of the manufacturing process, plays a significant role in the final feel. Both Dunlop and Talalay can be produced in a range of densities, allowing manufacturers to fine-tune the firmness and support levels. So, a high-density Dunlop can feel firmer than a low-density Talalay.
Beyond comfort, the manufacturing process also impacts breathability. While both types of latex are naturally breathable due to their open-cell structure, Talalay, with its more consistent and potentially larger cell structure, often boasts slightly better airflow.
Ultimately, choosing between Dunlop and Talalay comes down to personal preference. If you prefer a firmer, more traditional latex feel with a slight density gradient and a more affordable price point, Dunlop might be the right choice. If you value a softer, more consistent feel, enhanced breathability, and dont mind spending a little more, Talalay might be the better option. By understanding the nuances of each process, you can make an informed decision and select the latex mattress layer that best suits your individual sleep needs.
Latex mattress construction relies heavily on the casing materials encasing the latex core, significantly impacting both the feel and durability of the mattress. Think of the casing like the clothes your mattress wears – it shapes the overall experience. These casings arent just a simple cover; they play a key role in breathability, comfort, and how well the mattress holds up over time.
Common casing materials include cotton, wool, and synthetic blends. Organic cotton is a popular choice, prized for its breathability and soft, natural feel. It helps regulate temperature, wicking away moisture to keep you cool and dry. Wool, another natural fiber, offers excellent temperature regulation and is naturally flame resistant. It provides a plush, slightly springy feel and adds to the mattresss overall durability. Synthetic blends, often polyester-based, are generally more affordable and offer varying degrees of breathability and durability. Some manufacturers even incorporate innovative materials like Tencel, known for its moisture-wicking properties and silky smooth texture.
The thickness and construction of the casing also matter. A tightly woven, thicker casing will create a firmer, more supportive feel, whereas a thinner, looser weave will result in a softer, more conforming sensation. Quilting patterns in the casing can also influence the feel, adding plushness and creating localized pressure relief.
Beyond comfort, the casing plays a vital role in protecting the latex core from wear and tear. A durable casing helps prevent dust mites, allergens, and spills from reaching the latex, extending the mattresss lifespan. It also adds structural integrity, helping the mattress maintain its shape over time.
When choosing a latex mattress, consider the casing materials carefully. Think about your sleep preferences – do you prefer a cool, crisp feel or a plush, cozy sensation? Also, consider the climate you live in and any allergies you might have. By understanding the role of the casing, you can make an informed decision and choose a latex mattress that provides the perfect balance of comfort, support, and durability.
Latex mattresses arent just a single slab of rubber anymore. Theyve evolved, offering a world of customization that allows for a truly personalized sleep experience. This customization revolves around layering and combining different types of latex foam to achieve the perfect balance of comfort, support, and temperature regulation.
One of the core customization options is the choice between Dunlop and Talalay latex. Dunlop, the denser and firmer of the two, provides excellent support and durability, making it ideal for base layers. Talalay, with its open-cell structure and lighter feel, offers superior breathability and pressure relief, often preferred for comfort layers. A common combination is a Dunlop base for sturdy support topped with a Talalay layer for plush comfort. This isnt a hard and fast rule, though. Someone who prefers a firmer feel might choose an all-Dunlop construction, while someone seeking a cloud-like experience might opt for an all-Talalay mattress.
Beyond the type of latex, the thickness of each layer plays a crucial role in customizing the feel. Thicker comfort layers provide deeper cushioning and contouring, while thinner layers offer a more responsive, buoyant feel. Similarly, a thicker base layer enhances support and durability, while a thinner base allows for more pronounced pressure relief from the comfort layers. You can even find mattresses with multiple comfort layers, allowing you to combine different densities and thicknesses for a truly bespoke feel. For instance, a layer of soft Talalay could be combined with a layer of medium Talalay for a plush yet supportive surface.
Temperature regulation is another area where customization shines. Latex is naturally breathable, but adding perforated layers or incorporating wool or cotton covers can further enhance airflow and wick away moisture, creating a cooler sleeping environment. Conversely, those living in colder climates might prefer a thicker wool topper for added warmth.
The beauty of latex mattress layering is the ability to experiment and find the perfect combination for your unique needs. Whether you’re a side sleeper seeking pressure relief, a back sleeper needing spinal alignment, or a hot sleeper looking for breathability, the customizable nature of latex mattresses allows you to fine-tune your sleep experience down to the last detail. This level of personalization is often the key to unlocking truly restorative sleep.
A bed is a piece of furniture that is used as a place to sleep, rest, and relax.[1][2]
Most modern beds consist of a soft, cushioned mattress on a bed frame. The mattress rests either on a solid base, often wood slats, or a sprung base. Many beds include a box spring inner-sprung base, which is a large mattress-sized box containing wood and springs that provide additional support and suspension for the mattress. Beds are available in many sizes, ranging from infant-sized bassinets and cribs, to small beds for a single person or adult, to large queen and king-size beds designed for two people. While most beds are single mattresses on a fixed frame, there are other varieties, such as the murphy bed, which folds into a wall, the sofa bed, which folds out of a sofa, the trundle bed, which is stored under a low, twin-sized bed and can be rolled out to create a larger sleeping area, and the bunk bed, which provides two mattresses on two tiers as well as a ladder to access the upper tier. Temporary beds include the inflatable air mattress and the folding camp cot. Some beds contain neither a padded mattress nor a bed frame, such as the hammock. Other beds are made specifically for animals.
Beds may have a headboard for resting against, and may have side rails and footboards. "Headboard only" beds may incorporate a "dust ruffle", "bed skirt", or "valance sheet" to hide the bed frame. To support the head, a pillow made of a soft, padded material is usually placed on the top of the mattress. Some form of covering blanket is often used to insulate the sleeper, often bed sheets, a quilt, or a duvet, collectively referred to as bedding. Bedding is the removable non-furniture portion of a bed, which enables these components to be washed or aired out.
In Europe, mattresses were stuffed with straw, chaff, animal hair (for instance horsehair, used for its resilience), coarse wool, or down feathers, and stacked, softest topmost. This pile of mattresses, and the sheets, blanket, and pillows, was what early Europeans called a "bed"; it might be packed away during the day (a usage which survives in words like featherbed). The bedframe, even when present, supported the bed, but was not considered part of it.[3]: 674–5 vol1 Later innovations made bedframes more portable, and increased their importance.[3]: 481vol3 : 674vol1 : 675–6 vol1â€ÅÂÂ
In August 2020 scientists reported the discovery of the oldest grass bedding from at least 200,000 years ago, much older than the oldest previously known bedding. They speculate that insect-repellent plants and ash layers, sometimes due to burned older grass beddings, found beneath the bedding have been used for a dirt-free, insulated base and to keep away arthropods.[4][5][6]
Early beds were little more than piles of straw or some other natural material (e.g. a heap of palm leaves, animal skins, or dried bracken).[7] An important change was raising them off the ground, to avoid drafts, dirt, and pests.[citation needed] In the Miocene period, lasting from twenty-three to five million years ago, before the emergence of humans, apes began creating beds composed of a sleeping platform instead of sleeping on branches.[8]
Bedding dated around to 3600 BC was discovered in Sibudu Cave, South Africa.[9] The bedding consists of sedge and other monocotyledons topped with the leaves of Cryptocarya woodii.[9]
Beds found in a preserved northern Scottish village, which were raised boxes made of stone and likely topped with comfortable fillers, were dated to between 3200 BC and 2200 BC.[10]
The Odyssey, an ancient Greek epic poem, describes the bed of its protagonist, Odysseus, and explains that he crafted the bed for himself and his wife, Penelope, out of a huge olive tree trunk that used to grow on the spot.[11] The poem's author, Homer, also mentions the inlaying of the woodwork of the bed with gold, silver, and ivory.[11]
Ancient Roman mattresses were stuffed with reeds, hay, or wool. Feathers were used towards the end of the Republic, when custom demanded luxury. Small cushions were placed at the head and sometimes at the back. The bedsteads were high and could only be ascended by the help of steps. They were often arranged for two people, and had a board or railing at the back, as well as the raised portion at the head. The counterpanes were sometimes very costly, generally purple embroidered with figures in gold; and rich hangings fell to the ground masking the front. The bedsteads themselves were often of bronze inlaid with silver, and Elagabalus had one of solid silver. In the walls of some houses at Pompeii bed niches are found which were probably closed by curtains or sliding partitions. Ancient Romans had various kinds of beds for repose. These included:
The Greeks and Romans were also having their meals in bed. They would recline on one side and reach out to pick up food from a nearby table.[14]
The Egyptians had high bedsteads which were ascended by steps, with bolsters or pillows, and curtains to hang around.[15] The elite of Egyptian society such as its pharaohs and queens even had beds made of wood, sometimes gilded. Often there was a head-rest as well, semi-cylindrical and made of stone, wood, or metal.[16] Ancient Assyrians, Medes, and Persians had beds of a similar kind, and frequently decorated their furniture with inlays or appliques of metal, mother-of-pearl, and ivory.
In the early Middle Ages they laid carpets on the floor or on a bench against the wall, placed upon them were mattresses stuffed with feathers, wool, or hair, and used skins as a covering. Curtains were hung from the ceiling or from an iron arm projecting from the wall.[18] They appear to have generally lain naked in bed, wrapping themselves in large linen sheets which were stretched over the cushions.
In the 12th century, luxury increased and bedsteads were made of wood much decorated with inlaid, carved, and painted ornamentation. They also used folding beds, which served as couches by day and had cushions covered with silk laid upon leather. At night a linen sheet was spread and pillows placed, while silk-covered skins served as coverlets. The Carolingian manuscripts show metal bedsteads much higher at the head than at the feet, and this shape continued in use until the 13th century in France, many cushions being added to raise the body to a sloping position. In 12th-century manuscripts, the bedsteads appear much richer, with inlays, carving, and painting, and with embroidered coverlets and mattresses in harmony. Curtains were hung above the bed and a small hanging lamp is often shown.[citation needed]
In the 14th century the woodwork became of less importance, generally being entirely covered by hangings of rich materials. Silk, velvet, and even cloth of gold were frequently used. Inventories from the beginning of the 14th century give details of these hangings lined with fur and richly embroidered. It was then that the Four poster bed (also known as a tester bed) made its first appearance, the bed being slung from the ceiling or fastened to the walls, a form which developed later into a room within a room, shut in by double curtains, sometimes even to exclude all drafts. The space between the bed and the wall was called the ruelle, and very intimate friends were received there. The 14th century was also the time when feather beds became highly prized possessions.[18] Beds in aristocratic residences can be distinguished by enclosed curtains, these beds would have mattresses and pillows that were filled with feathers. Sheets were made of linen and blankets of wool. Rails attached to the beds would be for hanging clothes or to hold candles. In less wealthy houses, the bed would be made of three planks and a mattress made of dried heather or fern, they would sleep with a single sheet and an old blanket.[19]
In the 15th century beds became very large, reaching 7 to 8 feet (2.1 to 2.4 m) by 6 to 7 feet (1.8 to 2.1 m). The mattresses were often filled with pea-shucks, straw, or feathers. At this time great personages were in the habit of carrying most of their property about with them, including beds and bed hangings, and for this reason the bedsteads were for the most part mere frameworks to be covered up; but about the beginning of the 16th century bedsteads were made lighter and more decorative, since the lords remained in the same place for longer periods.[citation needed]
In the 17th century, which has been called "the century of magnificent beds", the style à la duchesse, with tester and curtains only at the head, replaced the more enclosed beds in France, though they lasted much longer in England. Louis XIV had an enormous number of sumptuous beds, as many as 413 being described in the inventories of his palaces. Some of them had embroideries enriched with pearls, and figures on a silver or golden ground. The great bed at Versailles had crimson velvet curtains on which "The Triumph of Venus" was embroidered. So much gold was used that the velvet scarcely showed.
In the 18th century feather pillows were first used as coverings in Germany, which in the fashions of the bed and the curious etiquette connected with the bedchamber followed France for the most part. The beds were a la duchesse, but in France itself there was great variety both of name and shape. The custom of the "bed of justice" upon which the king of France reclined when he was present in parliament, the princes being seated, the great officials standing, and the lesser officials kneeling, was held to denote the royal power even more than the throne.
Louis XI is credited with its first use and the custom lasted until the end of the monarchy. In the chambre de parade, where the ceremonial bed was placed, certain persons, such as ambassadors or great lords, whom it was desired to honour, were received in a more intimate fashion than the crowd of courtiers. At Versailles women received their friends in their beds, both before and after childbirth, during periods of mourning, and even directly after marriage—in fact in any circumstances which were thought deserving of congratulation or condolence. During the 17th century this curious custom became general, perhaps to avoid the tiresome details of etiquette. Portable beds were used in high society in France until the end of the Ancien Régime. The earliest of which mention has been found belonged to Charles the Bold. They had curtains over a light framework, and were in their way as fine as the stationary beds.
Iron beds appear in the 18th century; the advertisements declare them as free from the insects which sometimes infested wooden bedsteads. Elsewhere, there was also the closed bed with sliding or folding shutters, and in England—where beds were commonly quite simple in form—the four poster was the usual citizen's bed until the middle of the 19th century.
Bed sizes vary considerably around the world, with most countries having their own standards and terminology.
One of the largest beds in the world is the Great Bed of Ware, made in about 1580. It is 3.26 metres (10.7 ft) wide, 3.38 metres (11.1 ft) long. The bed is mentioned by Shakespeare in Twelfth Night. It is now in the Victoria and Albert Museum (V&A) in London. Another bed in the V&A is the Golden Bed created by William Burges in 1879.[20]
In 1882, Nawab of Bahawalpur Sadiq Muhammad Khan Abassi IV had a bed made of dark wood ornamented with 290 kilograms (640 lb) of sterling silver. At each corner of the bed there was a life-sized bronze statue of a naked woman holding a fan. When the Nawab lay on the bed, his weight started a mechanism that made the women wave their fans and started a music box playing selections from Gounod's Faust.[21]
In 1865, a convertible bed in the form of an upright piano was available, which could provide home entertainment while saving space.[22]
There are many varieties of beds:
Bed frames, also called bed steads, are made of wood or metal. The frame is made up of head, foot, and side rails. For heavy duty or larger frames (such as for queen- and king-sized beds), the bed frame also includes a center support rail. The rails are assembled to create a box for the mattress or mattress/box spring to sit on.
Types include:
Although not truly parts of a bed frame, headboards, footboards, and bed rails can be included in the definition. Headboards and footboards can be wood or metal. They can be stained, painted, or covered in fabric or leather.
Bed rails are made of wood or metal and are attached to a headboard and footboard. Wooden slats are placed perpendicular to the bed rails to support the mattress/mattress box spring. Bed rails and frames are often attached to the bed post using knock-down fittings.[31][32] A knock-down fitting enables the bed to be easily dismantled for removal. Primary knock-down fittings for bed rails are as follows:
Safety rails, or cot sides, can be added to the sides of a bed (normally a child or elderly person's bed) to stop anyone falling out of the sides of the bed.[33] A safety rail is normally a piece of wood that attaches to the side rails, on one or both sides of the bed. They are made so that they can be easily removed when no longer required.
Furniture refers to objects intended to support various human activities such as seating (e.g., stools, chairs, and sofas), eating (tables), storing items, working, and sleeping (e.g., beds and hammocks). Furniture is also used to hold objects at a convenient height for work (as horizontal surfaces above the ground, such as tables and desks), or to store things (e.g., cupboards, shelves, and drawers). Furniture can be a product of design and can be considered a form of decorative art. In addition to furniture's functional role, it can serve a symbolic or religious purpose. It can be made from a vast multitude of materials, including metal, plastic, and wood. Furniture can be made using a variety of woodworking joints which often reflects the local culture.
People have been using natural objects, such as tree stumps, rocks and moss, as furniture since the beginning of human civilization and continues today in some households/campsites. Archaeological research shows that from around 30,000 years ago, people started to construct and carve their own furniture, using wood, stone, and animal bones. Early furniture from this period is known from artwork such as a Venus figurine found in Russia, depicting the goddess on a throne. The first surviving extant furniture is in the homes of Skara Brae in Scotland, and includes cupboards, dressers and beds all constructed from stone. Complex construction techniques such as joinery began in the early dynastic period of ancient Egypt. This era saw constructed wooden pieces, including stools and tables, sometimes decorated with valuable metals or ivory. The evolution of furniture design continued in ancient Greece and ancient Rome, with thrones being commonplace as well as the klinai, multipurpose couches used for relaxing, eating, and sleeping. The furniture of the Middle Ages was usually heavy, oak, and ornamented. Furniture design expanded during the Italian Renaissance of the fourteenth and fifteenth century. The seventeenth century, in both Southern and Northern Europe, was characterized by opulent, often gilded Baroque designs. The nineteenth century is usually defined by revival styles. The first three-quarters of the twentieth century are often seen as the march towards Modernism. One unique outgrowth of post-modern furniture design is a return to natural shapes and textures.[1]
The English word furniture is derived from the French word fourniture,[2] the noun form of fournir, which means to supply or provide.[3] Thus fourniture in French means supplies or provisions.[4] The English usage, referring specifically to household objects, is specific to that language;[5] French and other Romance languages as well as German use variants of the word meubles, which derives from Latin mobilia, meaning "moveable goods".[6]
The practice of using natural objects as rudimentary pieces of furniture likely dates to the beginning of human civilization.[7] Early humans are likely to have used tree stumps as seats, rocks as rudimentary tables, and mossy areas for sleeping.[7] During the late Paleolithic or early Neolithic period, from around 30,000 years ago, people began constructing and carving their own furniture, using wood, stone and animal bones.[8] The earliest evidence for the existence of constructed furniture is a Venus figurine found at the Gagarino site in Russia, which depicts the goddess in a sitting position, on a throne.[9] A similar statue of a seated woman was found in Çatalhöyük in Turkey, dating to between 6000 and 5500 BCE.[7] The inclusion of such a seat in the figurines implies that these were already common artefacts of that age.[9]
A range of unique stone furniture has been excavated in Skara Brae, a Neolithic village in Orkney, Scotland The site dates from 3100 to 2500 BCE and due to a shortage of wood in Orkney, the people of Skara Brae were forced to build with stone, a readily available material that could be worked easily and turned into items for use within the household. Each house shows a high degree of sophistication and was equipped with an extensive assortment of stone furniture, ranging from cupboards, dressers, and beds to shelves, stone seats, and limpet tanks. The stone dresser was regarded as the most important as it symbolically faces the entrance in each house and is therefore the first item seen when entering, perhaps displaying symbolic objects, including decorative artwork such as several Neolithic carved stone balls also found at the site.
Ancient furniture has been excavated from the 8th-century BCE Phrygian tumulus, the Midas Mound, in Gordion, Turkey. Pieces found here include tables and inlaid serving stands. There are also surviving works from the 9th–8th-century BCE Assyrian palace of Nimrud. The earliest surviving carpet, the Pazyryk Carpet was discovered in a frozen tomb in Siberia and has been dated between the 6th and 3rd century BCE.
Civilization in ancient Egypt began with the clearance and irrigation of land along the banks of the River Nile,[10] which began in about 6000 BCE. By that time, society in the Nile Valley was already engaged in organized agriculture and the construction of large buildings.[11] At this period, Egyptians in the southwestern corner of Egypt were herding cattle and also constructing large buildings. Mortar was in use by around 4000 BCE The inhabitants of the Nile Valley and delta were self-sufficient and were raising barley and emmer (an early variety of wheat) and stored it in pits lined with reed mats.[12] They raised cattle, goats and pigs and they wove linens and baskets.[12] Evidence of furniture from the predynastic period is scarce, but samples from First Dynasty tombs indicate an already advanced use of furnishings in the houses of the age.[13]
During the Dynastic Period, which began in around 3200 BCE, Egyptian art developed significantly, and this included furniture design.[14] Egyptian furniture was primarily constructed using wood, but other materials were sometimes used, such as leather,[15] and pieces were often adorned with gold, silver, ivory and ebony, for decoration.[15] Wood found in Egypt was not suitable for furniture construction, so it had to be imported into the country from other places,[14] particularly Phoenicia.[16] The scarcity of wood necessitated innovation in construction techniques. The use of scarf joints to join two shorter pieces together and form a longer beam was one example of this,[17] as well as construction of veneers in which low quality cheap wood was used as the main building material, with a thin layer of expensive wood on the surface.[18]
The earliest used seating furniture in the dynastic period was the stool, which was used throughout Egyptian society, from the royal family down to ordinary citizens.[19] Various different designs were used, including stools with four vertical legs, and others with crossed splayed legs; almost all had rectangular seats, however.[19] Examples include the workman's stool, a simple three legged structure with a concave seat, designed for comfort during labour,[20] and the much more ornate folding stool, with crossed folding legs,[21] which were decorated with carved duck heads and ivory,[21] and had hinges made of bronze.[19] Full chairs were much rarer in early Egypt, being limited to only wealthy and high ranking people, and seen as a status symbol; they did not reach ordinary households until the 18th dynasty.[22] Early examples were formed by adding a straight back to a stool, while later chairs had an inclined back.[22] Other furniture types in ancient Egypt include tables, which are heavily represented in art, but almost nonexistent as preserved items – perhaps because they were placed outside tombs rather than within,[23] as well as beds and storage chests.[24][25]
Historical knowledge of Greek furniture is derived from various sources, including literature, terracotta, sculptures, statuettes, and painted vases.[26] Some pieces survive to this day, primarily those constructed from metals, including bronze, or marble.[26] Wood was an important and common material in Greek furniture, both domestic and imported.[26] A common technique was to construct the main sections of the furniture with cheap solid wood, then apply a veneer using an expensive wood, such as maple or ebony.[26] Greek furniture construction also made use of dowels and tenons for joining the wooden parts of a piece together.[26] Wood was shaped by carving, steam treatment, and the lathe, and furniture is known to have been decorated with ivory, tortoise shell, glass, gold or other precious materials.[27]
The modern word "throne" is derived from the ancient Greek thronos (Greek singular: θρÃÂÂÅ’νος), which was a seat designated for deities or individuals of high status/hierarchy or honor.[28] The colossal chryselephantine statue of Zeus at Olympia, constructed by Phidias and lost in antiquity, featured the god Zeus seated on an elaborate throne, which was decorated with gold, precious stones, ebony and ivory, according to Pausanias.[29] Other Greek seats included the klismos, an elegant Greek chair with a curved backrest and legs whose form was copied by the Romans and is now part of the vocabulary of furniture design,[30] the backless stool (diphros), which existed in most Greek homes,[31] and folding stool.[32] The kline, used from the late seventh century BCE,[33] was a multipurpose piece used as a bed, but also as a sofa and for reclining during meals.[34] It was rectangular and supported on four legs, two of which could be longer than the other, providing support for an armrest or headboard.[35] Mattresses, rugs, and blankets may have been used, but there is no evidence for sheets.[34]
In general, Greek tables were low and often appear in depictions alongside klinai.[36] The most common type of Greek table had a rectangular top supported on three legs, although numerous configurations exist, including trapezoid and circular.[37] Tables in ancient Greece were used mostly for dining purposes – in depictions of banquets, it appears as though each participant would have used a single table, rather than a collective use of a larger piece.[38] Tables also figured prominently in religious contexts, as indicated in vase paintings, for example, the wine vessel associated with Dionysus, dating to around 450 BCE and now housed at the Art Institute of Chicago.[39] Chests were used for storage of clothes and personal items and were usually rectangular with hinged lids.[37] Chests depicted in terracotta show elaborate patterns and design, including the Greek fret.[34]
Roman furniture was based heavily on Greek furniture, in style and construction. Rome gradually superseded Greece as the foremost culture of Europe, leading eventually to Greece becoming a province of Rome in 146 BC. Rome thus took over production and distribution of Greek furniture, and the boundary between the two is blurred. The Romans did have some limited innovation outside of Greek influence, and styles distinctly their own.[40]
Roman furniture was constructed principally using wood, metal and stone, with marble and limestone used for outside furniture. Very little wooden furniture survives intact, but there is evidence that a variety of woods were used, including maple, citron, beech, oak, and holly. Some imported wood such as satinwood was used for decoration. The most commonly used metal was bronze, of which numerous examples have survived, for example, headrests for couches and metal stools. Similar to the Greeks, Romans used tenons, dowels, nails, and glue to join wooden pieces together, and also practised veneering.[40]
The 1738 and 1748 excavations of Herculaneum and Pompeii revealed Roman furniture, preserved in the ashes of the AD 79 eruption of Vesuvius.
Unlike the ancient western civilizations of Egypt, Greece, and Rome, there is comparatively little evidence of furniture from the 5th to the 15th century.[41] Very few extant pieces survive, and evidence in literature is also scarce.[41] It is likely that the style of furniture prevalent in late antiquity persisted throughout the Middle Ages.[41] For example, a throne similar to that of Zeus is depicted in a sixth-century diptych,[41] while the Bayeux tapestry shows Edward the Confessor and Harold seated on seats similar to the Roman sella curulis.[42] The furniture of the Middle Ages was usually heavy, oak, and ornamented with carved designs.
The Hellenistic influence upon Byzantine furniture can be seen through the use of acanthus leaves, palmettes, bay and olive leaves as ornaments. Oriental influences manifest through rosettes, arabesques and the geometric stylisation of certain vegetal motifs. Christianity brings symbols in Byzantine ornamentation: the pigeon, fishes, the lamb and vines.[43] The furniture from Byzantine houses and palaces was usually luxurious, highly decorated and finely ornamented. Stone, marble, metal, wood and ivory are used. Surfaces and ornaments are gilded, painted plychrome, plated with sheets of gold, emailed in bright colors, and covered in precious stones. The variety of Byzantine furniture is pretty big: tables with square, rectangle or round top, sumptuous decorated, made of wood sometimes inlaid, with bronze, ivory or silver ornaments; chairs with high backs and with wool blankets or animal furs, with coloured pillows, and then banks and stools; wardrobes were used only for storing books; cloths and valuable objects were kept in chests, with iron locks; the form of beds imitated the Roman ones, but have different designs of legs.[44]
The main ornament of Gothic furniture and all applied arts is the ogive. The geometric rosette accompanies the ogive many times, having a big variety of forms. Architectural elements are used at furniture, at the beginning with purely decorative reasons, but later as structure elements. Besides the ogive, the main ornaments are: acanthus leaves, ivy, oak leaves, haulms, clovers, fleurs-de-lis, knights with shields, heads with crowns and characters from the Bible. Chests are the main type of Gothic furniture used by the majority of the population. Usually, the locks and escutcheon of chests have also an ornamental scope, being finely made.[45]
Along with the other arts, the Italian Renaissance of the fourteenth and fifteenth century marked a rebirth in design, often inspired by the Greco-Roman tradition. A similar explosion of design, and renaissance of culture in general occurred in Northern Europe, starting in the fifteenth century.
The 17th century, in both Southern and Northern Europe, was characterized by opulent, often gilded Baroque designs that frequently incorporated a profusion of vegetal and scrolling ornament. Starting in the eighteenth century, furniture designs began to develop more rapidly. Although there were some styles that belonged primarily to one nation, such as Palladianism in Great Britain or Louis Quinze in French furniture, others, such as the Rococo and Neoclassicism were perpetuated throughout Western Europe.
During the 18th century, the fashion was set in England by the French art. In the beginning of the century Boulle cabinets were at the peak of their popularity and Louis XIV was reigning in France. In this era, most of the furniture had metal and enamelled decorations in it and some of the furniture was covered in inlays of marbles lapis lazuli, and porphyry and other stones. By mid-century this Baroque style was displaced by the graceful curves, shining ormolu, and intricate marquetry of the Rococo style, which in turn gave way around 1770 to the more severe lines of Neoclassicism, modeled after the architecture of ancient Greece and Rome.[52] Creating a mass market for furniture, the distinguished London cabinet maker Thomas Chippendale's The Gentleman and Cabinet Maker's Director (1754) is regarded as the "first comprehensive trade catalogue of its kind".[53]
There is something so distinct in the development of taste in French furniture, marked out by the three styles to which the three monarchs have given the name of "Louis Quatorze", "Louis Quinze", and "Louis Seize". This will be evident to anyone who will visit, first the Palace of Versailles, then the Grand Trianon, and afterwards the Petit Trianon.[54]
The nineteenth century is usually defined by concurrent revival styles, including Gothic, Neoclassicism, and Rococo. The design reforms of the late century introduced the Aesthetic movement and the Arts and Crafts movement. Art Nouveau was influenced by both of these movements. Shaker-style furniture became popular during this time in North America as well.
This design was in many ways rooted in necessity and emphasizes both form and materials. Early British Colonial American[vague] chairs and tables are often constructed with turned spindles and chair backs often constructed with steaming to bend the wood. Wood choices tend to be deciduous hardwoods with a particular emphasis on the wood of edible or fruit bearing trees such as cherry or walnut.[69]
The first three-quarters of the 20th century is seen as the march towards Modernism. The furniture designers of Art Deco, De Stijl, Bauhaus, Jugendstil, Wiener Werkstätte, and Vienna Secession all worked to some degree within the Modernist motto.
Born from the Bauhaus and Streamline Moderne came the post-World War II style "Mid-Century Modern". Mid-Century Modern materials developed during the war including laminated plywood, plastics, and fiberglass. Prime examples include furniture designed by George Nelson Associates, Charles and Ray Eames, Paul McCobb, Florence Knoll, Harry Bertoia, Eero Saarinen, Harvey Probber, Vladimir Kagan and Danish modern designers including Finn Juhl and Arne Jacobsen.
Industrialisation, Post-Modernism, and the Internet have allowed furniture design to become more accessible to a wider range of people than ever before. There are many modern styles of furniture design, each with roots in Classical, Modernist, and Post-Modern design and art movements. The growth of Maker Culture across the Western sphere of influence has encouraged higher participation and development of new, more accessible furniture design techniques. One unique outgrowth of this post-modern furniture design trajectory is live edge, which incorporates the natural surface of a tree as part of a furniture object, heralding a resurgence of these natural shapes and textures within the home.[1] Additionally, the use of epoxy resin has become more prevalent in DIY furniture styles.
Great efforts from individuals, governments, and companies has led to the manufacturing of products with higher sustainability known as Ecodesign. This new line of furniture is based on environmentally friendly design. Its use and popularity are increasing each year.[70]
Postmodern design, intersecting the Pop art movement, gained steam in the 1960s and 70s, promoted in the 80s by groups such as the Italy-based Memphis movement. Transitional furniture is intended to fill a place between Traditional and Modern tastes.[citation needed]
Asian furniture has a quite distinct history. The traditions out of India, China, Korea, Pakistan, Indonesia (Bali and Java) and Japan are some of the best known, but places such as Mongolia, and the countries of South East Asia have unique facets of their own.
The use of uncarved wood and bamboo and the use of heavy lacquers are well known Chinese styles. It is worth noting that Chinese furniture varies dramatically from one dynasty to the next. Chinese ornamentation is highly inspired by paintings, with floral and plant life motifs including bamboo trees, chrysanthemums, waterlilies, irises, magnolias, flowers and branches of cherry, apple, apricot and plum, or elongated bamboo leaves; animal ornaments include lions, bulls, ducks, peacocks, parrots, pheasants, roosters, ibises and butterflies. The dragon is the symbol of earth fertility, and of the power and wisdom of the emperor. Lacquers are mostly populated with princesses, various Chinese people, soldiers, children, ritually and daily scenes. Architectural features tend toward geometric ornaments, like meanders and labyrinths. The interior of a Chinese house was simple and sober. All Chinese furniture is made of wood, usually ebony, teak, or rosewood for heavier furniture (chairs, tables and benches) and bamboo, pine and larch for lighter furniture (stools and small chairs).[71]
Traditional Japanese furniture is well known for its minimalist style, extensive use of wood, high-quality craftsmanship and reliance on wood grain instead of painting or thick lacquer. Japanese chests are known as Tansu, known for elaborate decorative iron work, and are some of the most sought-after of Japanese antiques. The antiques available generally date back to the Tokugawa and Meiji periods. Both the technique of lacquering and the specific lacquer (resin of Rhus vernicifera) originated in China, but the lacquer tree also grows well in Japan. The recipes of preparation are original to Japan: resin is mixed with wheat flour, clay or pottery powder, turpentine, iron powder or wood coal. In ornamentation, the chrysanthemum, known as kiku, the national flower, is a very popular ornament, including the 16-petal chrysanthemum symbolizing the Emperor. Cherry and apple flowers are used for decorating screens, vases and shÃ…ÂÂÂji. Common animal ornaments include dragons, carps, cranes, gooses, tigers, horses and monkeys; representations of architecture such as houses, pavilions, towers, torii gates, bridges and temples are also common. The furniture of a Japanese house consists of tables, shelves, wardrobes, small holders for flowers, bonsais or for bonkei, boxes, lanterns with wooden frames and translucent paper, neck and elbow holders, and jardinieres.[72]
Seating is amongst the oldest known furniture types, and authors including Encyclopædia Britannica regard it as the most important.[2] In addition to the functional design, seating has had an important decorative element from ancient times to the present day. This includes carved and sculpted pieces intended as works of art, as well as the styling of seats to indicate social importance, with senior figures or leaders granted the use of specially designed seats.[2]
The simplest form of seat is the chair,[73] which is a piece of furniture designed to allow a single person to sit down, which has a back and legs, as well as a platform for sitting.[74] Chairs often feature cushions made from various fabrics.[75]
All different types of woods have unique signature marks that can help in easy identification of the type. Hardwood and softwood are the two main categories for wood. Both hardwoods and softwoods are used in furniture manufacturing, and each has its own specific uses. Deciduous trees, which have broad leaves that change color periodically throughout the year, are the source of hardwood. Coniferous trees, also known as cone-bearing trees, have small leaves or needles that stay on the tree throughout the year.[76][77] Common softwoods used include pine, redwood and yew. Higher quality furniture tends to be made out of hardwood, including oak, maple, mahogany, teak, walnut, cherry and birch. Highest quality wood will have been air dried to rid it of its moisture.[78]
A popular furniture hardwood is American black cherry. Cherry is a light reddish brown to brown color that intensifies into a rich color as it ages, and grows mostly in the eastern United States. Cherry has a tighter grain than birch and is softer. Much cherry lumber is narrow, and it has been utilized to make many lovely classic furniture pieces.[76]
Birch is a sturdy, durable, even-textured hardwood that is common in the United States and Canada. The wood appears white or creamy yellow to light brown with a crimson tinge in its natural state. Birch is frequently stained to complement other types of wood in furniture. Birch is used to make a lot of transparent, cabinet-grade plywood because it absorbs stain well and finishes beautifully. Birch is frequently used to construct interior doors and cupboards in addition to furniture.[76]
Restoring a piece of furniture may imply attempting to repair and revive the original finish in some way. More often than not, this entails removing the existing treatment and preparing the raw wood for a new finish. Methods for repair depend on what kind of wood it is: solid or veneered, hardwood or softwood, open grained or closed grained. These variables can sometimes decide if a piece of furniture is worth repairing, as well as the type of repairs and finish it will require if it is restored. The 3 methods of restoring furniture are rejuvenate, repair, and refinish.
Rejuvenate The piece can easily be restored by just cleaning and waxing the surface while preserving the current finish. It works on wooden furniture that is still in good shape and is the simplest way to clean it.
Repair This process can fix dents and cracks by touching up some worn-out areas without removing the surface with this technique, the finish can be maintained while repairing the object with specialized products.
Refinish Remove anything that is left for example any paint with a finish-stripper product or lightly sanding the area down and then applying wood finish like oil wax in order to protect the secure the wood.[76]
Cleaning Remove dirt, dust, and grime from the furniture using a mild soap or specialized furniture cleaner.
A mattress is a large, usually rectangular pad for supporting a person lying down, especially for sleeping. It is designed to be used as a bed, or on a bed frame as part of a bed. Mattresses may consist of a quilted or similarly fastened case, usually of heavy cloth, containing materials such as hair, straw, cotton, foam rubber, or a framework of metal springs. Mattresses may also be filled with air or water.[1]
Mattresses are usually placed on top of a bed base which may be solid, as in the case of a platform bed, or elastic, such as an upholstered wood and wire box spring or a slatted foundation. Popular in Europe, a divan[2] incorporates both mattress and foundation in a single upholstered, footed unit. Divans have at least one innerspring layer as well as cushioning materials. They may be supplied with a secondary mattress or a removable "topper". Mattresses may also be filled with air or water, or a variety of natural fibers, such as in futons. Kapok is a common mattress material in Southeast Asia, and coir in South Asia.
A third-century BCE papyrus mentions a man named Krotos who is "waiting in Jaffa for an opportunity of exporting... and mattresses."[3][4]
The word mattress derives from the Arabic مَطْرَØÂÂÂÙŒ (maá¹ÂÂÂraḥ)[5] which means "something thrown down" or "place where something is thrown down" and hence "mat, cushion". During the Crusades, Europeans adopted one of the Middle Eastern methods of sleeping on cushions on the floor since sleeping on beds in the Middle East was for the wealthy. The word materas eventually descended into Middle English through the Romance languages.[6] The oldest known mattress dates to around 77,000 years ago from South Africa and consisted of layers of twigs and leaves, notably including the leaves from Cryptocarya woodii which serves as a natural insect repellent and is believed to have served the additional purpose of repelling mosquitos. Preventing or reducing the number of mosquito bites would have reduced the chance malaria, which continues to be spread by mosquitos throughout Africa to this day and has been estimated to be the single most common cause of death among humans historically, estimated to have caused the death of roughly half of humans that have ever lived throughout history.[7]
Early mattresses contained a variety of natural materials including straw, feathers or horsehair. In the first half of the 20th century, a typical mattress sold in North America had an innerspring core and cotton batting or fiberfill. Modern mattresses usually contain either an inner spring core or materials such as latex, viscoelastic or other flexible polyurethane foams. Other fill components include insulator pads over the coils that prevent the bed's upholstery layers from cupping down into the innerspring, as well as polyester fiberfill in the bed's top upholstery layers. In 1899 James Marshall introduced the first individually wrapped pocketed spring coil mattress now commonly known as Marshall coils.
In North America, the typical mattress sold today is an innerspring; however, there is increasing interest in all-foam beds and hybrid beds, which include both an innerspring and high-end foams such as viscoelastic or latex in the comfort layers. In Europe, polyurethane foam cores and latex cores have long been popular. These make up a much larger proportion of the mattresses sold in the continent.[8]
A conventional mattress consists of two primary sections – a core or "support layer" and the upholstery or "comfort layer" – wrapped in a thick fabric called the ticking.
Upholstery layers cover the mattress and provide cushioning and comfort. The upholstery layer consists of three parts: the insulator, the middle upholstery, and the quilt.
Mattresses are typically made to conform to bed sizing standards that vary by market. The size of mattress varies between national standards in width and height and depth. Many countries use non-numeric labels such as "King", "Queen", "Double", "Full" or "Single" to represent these dimensions.[9]
A mattress topper is a thin mattress, usually 5–10 centimetres (2–4 in) thick.[citation needed] Stand-alone mattresses of this size exist (see futon and Bed base#Floor beds; traditional European beds were made of a stack of mattresses of this size). But "mattress topper"s are usually sold for use on top of boxsprings (secured with straps or elasticated cloth corners[10]). They are used to extend the life of the more-expensive boxspring, make a bed warmer or cooler (with airflow, or heat-conductive materials),[11][12] make a firm bed softer, and for travel and dorms, as they are portable, especially if they are low-density.
Like a mattress protector/mattress pad/mattress cover (a thin, generally unpadded layer not designed to improve comfort),[11] mattress toppers can be used to protect the mattress from the sleeper or vice versa. Some mattress toppers are machine-washable;[12] covers and fillings are made from a range of materials.[11]
A tick mattress is a bag made of ticking (a type of cloth), filled with some suitable material. A paillasse or a featherbed is a tick mattress, as are most futons. They are simply constructed and were traditionally homemade. Because they are fairly thin and light, they are layered to form a bed.
Innerspring mattresses commonly consist of just the spring core, and the top and bottom upholstery layers.[13]
The core of the mattress supports the sleeper's body. Modern spring mattress cores, often called "innersprings" are made up of steel coil springs, or "coils".
The gauge of the coils is one factor which determines firmness and support. Coils are measured in quarter increments. The lower the number, the thicker the spring. In general, higher-quality mattress coils have a 14-gauge (1.63 mm) diameter. Coils of 14 to 15.5-gauge (1.63 to 1.37 mm) give more easily under pressure, while a 12.5-gauge (1.94 mm) coil, the thickest typically available, feels quite firm.
Connections between the coils help the mattress retain its shape. Most coils are connected by interconnecting wires; encased coils are not connected, but the fabric encasement helps preserve the mattress shape.
There are four types of mattress coils:
Upholstery layers cover the mattress and provide cushioning and comfort. Some manufacturers call the mattress core the "support layer" and the upholstery layer the "comfort layer". The upholstery layer consists of three parts: the insulator, the middle upholstery, and the quilt.
The insulator separates the mattress core from the middle upholstery. It is usually made of fiber or mesh and is intended to keep the middle upholstery in place.
The middle upholstery comprises all the material between the insulator and the quilt. It is usually made from materials which are intended to provide comfort to the sleeper, including flexible polyurethane foam (which includes convoluted "egg-crate" foam), viscoelastic foam, latex foam, felt, polyester fiber, cotton fiber, wool fiber and non-woven fiber pads. In Europe and North America, mattress makers have begun incorporating gel-infused foams, soft-solid gels layered over foam, and poured gels in the top comfort layer of the bed.[15]
The quilt is the top layer of the mattress. Made of light foam or fibers stitched to the underside of the ticking, it provides a soft surface texture to the mattress and can be found in varying degrees of firmness.
There are three main types of foundation or bed base:
This type of bed base is often used as an alternative to traditional box springs, which may be less durable and may not provide adequate support for heavier mattresses. Grid-top foundation bed bases are typically more durable and may offer greater stability for the mattress.
The grid-top design also allows for better weight distribution and can reduce pressure points, which can be beneficial for people with back pain or joint issues.[17] Additionally, the open design of the foundation can make it easier to move and store compared to bulkier box springs.
Typically the measurements of a foundation will be about 1–2″ shorter than the measurement of a mattress.
Ticking is the protective fabric cover used to encase mattresses and foundations. It is usually designed to coordinate with the foundation border fabric and comes in a wide variety of colors and styles. Mattress fabrics can be knits, damask or printed wovens, or inexpensive non-wovens. During the past decade, along with the rise in popularity of all-foam beds, stretchy knit ticking on the bed's top panel has become a standard look on both innerspring and foam beds. Most ticking is made with polyester yarns. More expensive mattress fabrics may contain a combination of polyester with rayon, cotton, silk, wool or other natural yarns.[18]
Up until the early 2000s, beds were normally upholstered with a single fabric. This was usually a damask ticking or, for inexpensive bedsets, a non-woven fabric covering all surfaces of the mattress and foundation. Today's bedsets are covered with up to six different fabrics: A better quality circular knit or woven damask on the top panel—the bed's sleeping surface; a matching or contrasting (usually woven) fabric on the border of the mattress; a matching or contrasting (usually woven) fabric on the foundation side panels; a 'non-skid' woven or non-woven fabric on the surface of the foundation and reverse side of the mattress; and a non-woven dust cover on the under side of the foundation. Some North American mattress producers are beginning to use furniture upholstery fabrics on the bed's borders giving beds a more European, home furnishings look.[19]
All-foam mattresses use different weights and densities of petrochemical-based flexible polyurethane foams[20] and viscoelastic foams or memory foam, and latex rubber foams. A number of mattress manufacturers have incorporated polyurethane and visco-elastic foams with a portion of plant-based content.[21] All-foam mattresses are often paired with platform bases.
Mattresses can also be made from bladders of some fluid, notably water or air. These date to antiquity – goatskin bladders filled with water were used in Persia at least as early as 3600 BCE – and gained increased popularity in the 20th century with improved manufacturing.
Many parameters determine the quality of a mattress. Laboratory test methods have been established for some of these parameters, such as pressure distribution, skin microclimate, hygiene, edge support, and long-term stability. Some of these have been developed by Duncan Bain, working on behalf of the UK's Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency.[29]
Other parameters, such as firmness, are more specific to the sleeper. In general, firm mattresses are recommended for stomach and some back sleepers, soft mattresses are recommended for side sleepers, and medium mattresses are recommended for the majority of back sleepers. Double mattresses are available with a softer and a firmer part, or with adjustable firmness levels, to accommodate sleepers with different preferences who share a bed.
In 2003, a randomized-controlled trial found that medium-firm mattresses assessed using the Hs scale from the European Committee for Standardization were associated with less pain;[30] this study has been cited by clinical practice guidelines on lower back pain.[31] In 2015, a systematic review of studies concluded that medium-firm, custom-inflated mattresses were best for pain and neutral spinal alignment.[26]
The term mattress lifespan refers to the duration in which all types of mattress can retain their original support and comfort.[citation needed] Mattresses deteriorate over time, and the lifespan of a mattress depends on a variety of factors, notably materials, manufacturing quality, care, and the rigorousness of use. A poor quality foam comfort layer can deteriorate noticeably in 1 year, while a quality latex core can last 20 years or more; innerspring cores typically last around 10 years. The comfort layer is almost invariably the first area to fail, which is why mattresses are often double-sided, to extend the lifespan. A separate topper may be used instead of or in addition to a comfort layer, which reduces wear and is replaceable without replacing the entire mattress. The majority of high-end mattresses have a lifespan of between 7–10 years but it can last beyond 10 years and more depending on the level of care.
In the United States, mattress warranties are typically for 10 years or 20 years, sometimes 25 years, though this specifically addresses manufacturing defects and faster-than-normal deterioration, not expected deterioration with time. In the United States, as of 2008[update] there is a general expectation that mattresses should last about 10 years, and this is the average number of years Americans keep mattresses, though this varies by age group.[32] This expectation is based on a number of factors, including sales pitches; the expectation that mattresses will last the length of their warranty, hence 10 years or 20 years, accordingly; and comparison with other household items.[32]
The mattress replacement cycle is a key driver of income and profits for the mattress industry – a five-year replacement cycle yields double the sales of a 10-year replacement cycle, for instance – so the mattress industry has a financial incentive to shorten the replacement cycle. Notably, the International Sleep Products Association (ISPA) established the Better Sleep Council (BSC) in 1979 with the stated goal to "shorten the mattress replacement cycle", in addition to encouraging people to "invest in better bedding".[33]
An industry-funded 2006 study by researchers at Oklahoma State University (funded by the BSC)[34] of 59 people with poor sleep who received free new replacement mattresses for their existing mattresses 5 years or older (average age 9.5 years) found improved sleep, particularly when the existing mattresses were cheap.[35] A follow-up paper by some of the same authors with additional statistical analysis reinforced these conclusions.[36] The BSC has subsequently cited this study in the ISPA-published news magazine for mattress manufacturers, BedTimes, to advocate a more frequent replacement cycle, specifically to "consider replacing a mattress every five to seven years"; the recommendation is based largely on this study.[32][37]
Wear problems occur with most mattresses and can include sagging, mildew, and staining. These are prevented by proper support, rotation and flipping, keeping it dry, and using a mattress pad or protector. Some symptoms of a broken or worn-out mattress include springs which can be felt poking through the upholstery layer, visible permanent sagging or deformity, lumpiness, and excessive squeaking.
Mattresses require a solid foundation which does not itself sag – a sagging foundation, such as by weak slats on a wide bed, will in turn cause the mattress to sag. Consistently sleeping in the same place and body position causes excessive wear, and thus rotating or flipping mattresses is used to reduce this: double-sided mattresses can be alternately flipped width-wise (about the long axis) and length-wise (about the shorter axis), or alternately flipped and rotated; while single-sided mattresses are only rotated, which is simpler but less effective. Flipping/rotation schedules vary between materials and manufacturers, but typically recommended is monthly for the first six months and every two or three months thereafter. Foundations should also be rotated, if possible, though less frequently – rotating box springs twice a year is recommended. While sagging is undesirable, some level of indentation (about 8 cm (3.1 in)) is natural if natural materials are used in a comfort layer.
Excessive wear on mattresses can occur when folding and bending takes place, placing heavy objects in one spot, or excess force on the handles, will also cause more rapid deterioration. Care should particularly be taken during transport or storage.
Mattresses require ventilation to remain dry and prevent mildew, and thus should not be placed directly on the floor or on a solid surface – slats or a box spring provide space for airflow, while solid wood or plywood (as in cheap bunkie boards) does not. Additional ventilation is recommended for natural materials, in which case leaving the mattress "naked" after stripping sheets (for example while laundering) is recommended. If a mattress is allowed to become damp, for example by wet cleaning, mildew may develop inside the upholstery; cleaning with a vacuum cleaner or mild surface cleanser and a slightly damp cloth avoids this.
Mattresses absorb fluids and stains readily, notably from nightly sweating (which results in a yellow stain), seminal (or Cowper) stains which are darker,[38] menstrual fluids which are dark red,[39] and other bodily fluids in addition to accidental spills. These visibly stain the ticking and seep through into lower layers. In addition to being unhygienic, hard to launder, and unsightly, such stains typically void a warranty. Thus a mattress protector is suggested to protect the mattress; this can be removed and cleaned separately, and replaced if damaged.
Companies often specialize in a particular type of mattress, such as innerspring, latex, and airbed, although as latex and airbeds have become more popular, they have become more common.
Mattresses which are mostly the same are often sold under different brand names;[40] two of the largest brands, Serta and Simmons, became owned by the same company after a private equity buyout.[41] Simmons, founded in the late 1800s, was bought and sold multiple times and faced bankruptcy after a major decline in the bedding industry in the 2000s.[41] The International Sleep Products Association was founded in 1915 and releases a report on U.S. mattress sales. Another association, Specialty Sleep Association, represents companies such as Innomax and Boyd Specialty focused on latex, waterbeds, and airbeds. However, Select Comfort, which produces airbeds (a specialty bed), is a member of the ISPA.[42]
Originally founded in 1881, the Sealy Corporation was purchased by Tempur-Pedic in 2012, which had introduced an all foam (TEMPUR-Material) brand into the United States in 1992.[43]
Adjustable beds have become a trend and are more compatible with certain types of mattresses such as latex or memory foam. These are particularly popular in Europe, and for one business accounted for 25% of beds in Sweden in 2010 and 70% of beds in the Netherlands.[44]
In the 2010s, affiliate marketing became a major part of the business model for direct-to-consumer online mattress companies such as Amerisleep.[45] Later, companies like Casper and Purple, with venture capital and funding followed and helped grow the global mattress industry to $28.5 billion dollar in 2018.[46][47] According to experts, there are over 175 bed-in-a-box mattress companies in the United States.[48] Mattress suggestion methods are emerging in response to the crowded retail marketplace.[49]
Another large company, Spring Air, went bankrupt in 2009 and was purchased by one of its former executives.
Comfortaire, founded in 1981, was the first to specialize in airbeds.[50] It was later bought by Select Comfort.
Pikolin, founded in 1948, is one of the largest manufacturers of mattresses.
Nice selection and quality, friendly and professional staff. Toni helped us choose and configure an awesome sofa, and the delivery team was nice and careful bringing it into the house.
We really like having SC41 locally. I've been pleased with my office chair and a cabinet bed we purchased there. There was a slight flaw with the bed cabinet and not only did they bring us a new one, but made a slight detail paint adjustment to fix a spot I might not have even noticed. We're looking forward to purchasing our couches there - fantastic selection of styles and fabrics.
This is the 3rd purchase from SC41 and they have our business for life! We bought our 1st Berkeley bed system 13 years ago and just purchased our 2nd mattress set. I like the natural fibers and extra support. The sales staff are extremely knowledgeable and friendly. The installers arrived ON TIME! And knew exactly what they were doing, something that seems rare these days. Kudos to your whole operation!
We are very pleased with our purchases. Living in a small home, SC41st had just what we needed. What impressed me the most is the sales person was very helpful. The furniture is of good quality and it looks fabulous in our living. We purchased a love seat, swivel chair, room size rug and ottoman. I need to go back and purchase a lamp that will fit just perfect.
I originally went to a furniture store in Pacific Grove. I spent an hour looking at couches and recliners and was totally ignored, not even a good morning! So, my wife and I went to SC41. Even though it was over an hour from our home in Carmel Valley. There, we met Lori, who welcomed us. She was friendly, helpful and extremely knowledgeable on the different products. We took a few sample leathers home for color comparisons and ordered a couch and two recliners. For first class service and a pleasure to deal with, my wife and I would absolutely recommend SC41.